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WORLD BANK REPORT

WDR 1994 : Infrastructure for Development

Author :	The World Bank
Publisher :	World Bank and Oxford University Press
Pub. Date :	1994
ISBN :	978-0-19-520992-1
DOI :	10.1596/978-0-19-520992-1

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Table of Contents

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o  Abstract

o  Front Matter

o  Chapter - Overview

o  Chapter 1 - Infrastructure: achievements, challenges, and opportunities

o  Chapter 2 - Running public entities on commercial principles

o  Chapter 3 - Using markets in infrastructure provision

o  Chapter 4 - Beyond markets in infrastructure

o  Chapter 5 - Financing needed investments

o  Chapter 6 - Setting priorities and implementing reform

o  Back Matter

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Boxes, Figures, Tables

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·     Figures

·     Tables

·     Boxes

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Bibliographical note


Introduction

This Report has drawn on a wide range of World Bank sources—including country economic, sector, and project work and research papers—and on numerous outside sources. The principal sources are noted below and are also listed by author or organization in two groups: background papers commissioned for this Report and a selected bibliography. The background papers are available on request through the World Development Report office. The views they express are not necessarily those of the World Bank or of this Report.

In addition to the sources listed below, many people, both inside and outside the World Bank, helped with the Report. In particular, the core team wishes to thank Sri-Ram Aiyer, Gary Bond, John Briscoe, Robert Burns, Laurence Carter, Michael Cohen, Jean Doyen, Nissim Ezekiel, Ian Heggie, Arturo Israel, Emmanuel Jimenez, Shinichiro Kawamata, Johannes Linn, Gobind Nankani, Guy Pfeffermann, Louis Pouliquen, Andres Rigo, Everett Santos, Zmarak Shalizi, John Shilling, Warrick Smith, Andrew Steer, Richard Stern, Inder Sud, Vinod Thomas, Louis Thompson, Michael Walton, and Hans Wyss.

Others who provided notes or detailed comments include Dennis Anderson, Robert Anderson, Hans Apitz, Ephrem Asebe, Mark Baird, Zeljko Bogetic, Richard Brun, José Carbajo, Krishna Challa, Armeane Choksi, Anthony Churchill, Sergio Contreras, Dennis de Tray, Shantayanan Devarajan, Istvan Dobozi, Gunnar Eskeland, Asif Faiz , John Flora, Louise Fox, Hernan Garcia, Amnon Golan, Orville Grimes, Luis Guasch, Jeffrey Gutman, Kenneth Gwilliam, Ricardo Halperin, Roger Heath, Norman Hicks, Vijay Jagannathan, Frida Johansen, Ali Khadr, Homi Kharas, Michael Klein, Pierre LandellMills, Kyu Sik Lee, Andres Liebenthal, Alain Locussol, David Lomax, Millard Long, Sergio Margulis, Costas Michalopoulos, Pradeep Mitra, Mohan Munasinghe, Sheoli Pargall, Anthony Pellegrini, Sanjay Pradhan, D. C. Rao, John Redwood III, Ali Sabeti, Mary Shirley, Jerry Silverman, Martin Staab, Pedro Taborga, Mateen Thobani, Thomas Walton, Peter Watson, Steven Webb, Jim Wright, and Guillermo Yepes.

Many people outside the World Bank contributed advice, comments, and material. Contributors and consultation meeting attendees from governments and bilateral aid agencies include Mueen Afzal, Pakistan Ministry of Finance; Joy Barrett, U.S. Peace Corps; Henk Bosch, Netherlands Directorate General for International Cooperation; Emmanuel de Calan, Mme. Chedeville-Murray, M. Gardin, and M. Perelman, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, France; Anne Charreyron-Perchet and Claude Martinand, Ministry of Public Works, Transport, and Tourism, France; John Crook, New Zealand Telecom House; Zou Deci, Chinese Academy of Urban Planning and Design; Gabor Demszky, Mayor of Budapest; Michio Fukai and Koichiro Fukui, Japan Development Bank; Yoshitaro Fuwa, Japan Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund; Tøre Gjos, Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation; Eilif Gundersen, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Norway; Bruno Gurtner, Swiss Coalition of Development Organizations; Cielito Habito, Philippines National Economic and Development Authority; Ameur Horchani, Ministry of Agriculture, Tunisia; C. K. Hyder, Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Bangladesh; Yves Jorlin, Caisse Française Développement; Peter J. Kalas, Swiss Federal Office for Foreign Economic Affairs; Patrick Lansman and Jean-Michele Severino, Ministry of Cooperation, France; Boguslaw Liberadzki, Minister of Transport and Maritime Economy, Poland; Aladar Madrarasz, Counselor, Budapest; Pekka Metso, Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Finland; Michael Morfit, U.S. Agency for International Development; Yukio Nishida, Japan Overseas Coastal Area Development Institute; Paul Peter, Swiss Development Corporation; Anna Maria Pinchera, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Italy; Masihur Rahman, Ministry of Communications, Bangladesh; Gedeon Rajaonson, Ministry of Public Works, Madagascar; Prathap Ramanujam, Ministry of Policy Planning and Implementation, Sri Lanka; Jens Erik Bendix Rasmussen, Danish International Development Association (DANIDA); Jacques Rogozinski, National Bank of Public Works and Services, Mexico; João Salomão, Minister of Construction and Water, Mozambique; Wongcha-um Sansern, National Economic and Social Development Board, Thailand; Eduard V. Sjerp, Counselor for Transportation, Royal Netherlands Embassy; Mikael Söderbäck, Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA); Sugijanto Soegijoko, National Development Planning Agency, Indonesia; Juha Suonenlahti, Finnish International Development Agency; Jon Wilmshurst, U.K. Overseas Development Administration (ODA); and Tony Zeitoun, Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).

Contributors and consultation meeting attendees from multilateral agencies include Fabio Ballerin, OECD; Ananda Covindassamy and Clell Harral, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD); Shashi Desai and M. Oketokoun, African Development Bank (AfDB); Jules A. Frippiat, UNDP; Lucio Gueratto, European Commission; Frederick Jaspersen, Inter-American Development Bank; Richard Jolly, Santosh K. Mehrotra, and Ashok K. Nigam, UNICEF; Jens Lorentzen, UN Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS); Stephen J. McCarthy, European Investment Bank; Steven K. Miller and Tom Strandberg, International Labour Organisation (ILO); Eustace Nonis and Nigel Rayner, Asian Development Bank (ADB); and J. Bruce Thompson, European Commission.

Contributors and consultation meeting attendees from private and public sector enterprises, universities and research institutes, and nongovernmental organizations include Yuzo Akatsuka, Saitama University; Kazumi Asako, Yokohama National University; Iwan Jaya Azis, University of Indonesia; Michael Beesley, London Business School; William Cosgrove, Ecoconsult, Inc.; Dan Craun-Selka, National Telephone Cooperative Association, U.S.A.; Henry Ergas, Harvard University; François Georges, Electricité de France; Bard Jackson, National Rural Electric Cooperative Association, U.S.A.; Tim Kelly, International Telecommunication Union; Kiwhan Kim, Kim & Chang, Republic of Korea; David Kinnersley, Water Aid (U.K.); Pierre Laconte, International Union of Public Transport; D. Lorrain, Centre National de Recherches Scientifiques, France; Rolf Luders, Universidad Católica de Chile; John R. Meyer, Harvard University; Bridger Mitchell, RAND Corporation; Rakesh Mohan, United Nations University, the Netherlands; Nobuichi Nomoto, International Engineering Consultants Association; Iqbal Noor Ali and Patricia Schied, Ali Khan Foundation, U.S.A.; Remy Prud’homme, Université de Paris; Colin Relf, Intermediate Technology Development Group and International Forum for Rural Transport and Development, U.K.; Annick Salomon, National Wildlife Federation; Ammar Siamwalla, Thai Development Research Institute; Byung- Nak Song, Seoul National University; Tatsu Sunami, Electric Power Development Company, Japan; Hideyuki Suzuki, All Japan Prefectural and Municipal Workers Union; Hisao Takahashi, Japan Airport Terminal Company; Kunio Takase, International Development Center of Japan; Yasushi Tanahashi, Japan Freight Railways Company; Kimimasa Tarumizu, Tokio Marine and Fire Insurance Company; Marie-Aimée Tourres, SOFRERAIL; Alex Wood, World Wildlife Association; Gordon Wu, Hopewell Holdings Ltd.; Shuichiro Yamanouchi, East Japan Railway Company; and Susumu Yoda, Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Japan.


Chapter 1

This chapter draws on a wide range of both published and unpublished sources, including World Bank project and sector documents, as well as academic literature. The value-added data in Table 1.1 were derived from official national accounts as maintained by the World Bank. The discussion of the importance of infrastructure in an economy draws from Bennathan and Johnson 1987, Galenson 1989, Japan 1984, and U.S. Department of Commerce 1984.

The section on estimating the productivity of infrastructure investments makes reference to crossnational studies, including Canning and Fay 1993 and Easterly and Rebelo 1993. Box 1.1 was drafted by Marianne Fay. For Box 1.1, the studies showing that causation between infrastructure provision and economic growth runs in both directions are Duffy-Deno and Eberts 1991 and Holtz-Eakin 1988. Studies that found no noticeable impact of infrastructure on growth once more sophisticated econometric methods were used include Holtz-Eakin 1992; those that found their positive results not to be very much affected are Bregman and Marom 1993, Duffy-Deno and Eberts 1991, Mera 1973, and Uchimura and Gao 1993. A review of the literature on infrastructure’s impact on costs of production is in Aschauer 1993. The trucking study is Keeler and Ying 1988. Other useful studies on the economic impacts of infrastructure include Argimón and others 1993; Ford and Poret 1991; Hulten and Schwab 1991 and 1993; Munnell 1990; and Uribe 1993.

The discussion of the effects of rural infrastructure draws from Ahmed and Hossain 1990 and Binswanger, Khandker, and Rosenzweig 1989. The discussion on the value and composition of infrastructure stocks is based on World Bank data and on Summers and Heston 1991. The section on returns to World Bank projects draws from Galenson 1993, Galenson and Thompson forthcoming, Garn 1987, Kaufmann 1991, and Sanghvi, Vernstrom, and Besant-Jones 1989. The Brookings Institution’s research study is Kresge and Roberts 1971. Table 1.2 was obtained from the World Bank Operations Evaluation Department database.

The discussion of infrastructure’s various economic impacts is based on Doyen 1993, IMF 1993b, Kessides 1993a, Mody and Wang 1994, Mody and Yilmaz 1994, Peters 1990 and 1992, Rebelo 1992, Wheeler and Mody 1992, and World Bank 1992a. Box 1.2 was drafted by Thawat Watanatada. The section on infrastructure in Central and Eastern European countries draws from various World Bank sector studies, including Bennathan and Thompson 1992 and Blackshaw and Thompson 1993.

Box 1.3 was drafted by Marianne Fay using Hicks 1991, Meyers 1986, IMF 1993b, World Bank 1993a, and data on public sector deficits from Easterly, Rodriguez, and Schmidt-Hebbel forthcoming.

The discussion of poverty in India draws upon Lanjouw and Stern 1993 and National Housing Bank of India 1992. Box 1.4 is based on Epstein 1962 and 1973 and Lanjouw and Stern 1993. The discussion of infrastructure’s effects on the urban poor draws from Kranton 1991. Caroline O. N. Moser contributed information on Ecuador from research work in progress. The civil works programs mentioned are discussed in Drèze and Sen 1989. The section on environmental linkages draws from the Ruitenbeek background paper, Rabinovitch and Leitmann 1993, USAID 1991, and World Bank 1992c, as well as World Bank sector work on Thailand.

References to the historical development of infrastructure and the private sector’s role draw from the background papers by Eichengreen; Jacobson and Tarr; and Kirwan. The concept of contestability is elaborated in Baumol, Panzar, and Willig 1988, and its relevance to infrastructure is further developed in Baumol and Lee 1991.

The section on the achievements in coverage of infrastructure is based on the data presented in the appendix and in the World Bank’s economic and social database. OECD 1993 provides a review of infrastructure performance issues in OECD countries.

The section on operational inefficiency draws from Galenson 1989, Gyamfi, Gutierrez, and Yepes 1992, Howe and Dixon 1993, World Bank 1991b and 1993h, the World Bank power sector database, and Yepes 1990.

Guy Le Moigne provided information on irrigation efficiency. John Nebiker provided data for the discussion of procurement issues, and relevant inputs were also provided by Jean-Jacques Raoul and Francesco Sarno.

The section on maintenance draws from Gyamfi, Gutierrez, and Yepes 1992, Heggie forthcoming, Mason and Thriscutt 1991, Postel 1993, World Bank 1988, and the Basu background paper. The reference to Cameroon was provided by John Schwartz. The World Bank railway database and power sector database were also used.

Details of financial inefficiency were obtained from Besant-Jones 1990b, Galenson and Thompson forthcoming, Heggie and Quick 1990, World Bank 1993h, and Gyamfi, Gutierrez, and Yepes 1992.

On the unresponsiveness to user demand, sources include Besant-Jones 1993, Singh and others 1993, and World Bank Water Demand Research Team 1993. Box 1.5 is based on Bell and others forthcoming, Humplick, Kudat, and Madanat 1993, Madanat and Humplick 1993, and Sethi forthcoming; Kavita Sethi wrote an early draft of the box. Box 1.6 derives from Lee and Anas 1992 and from Lee, Anas, and Verma 1993. Data on telephone fault rates and waiting time for connection are from the International Telecommunication Union 1994.

The section on service to the poor draws on Bhatia 1992, Cámara and Banister 1993, and World Bank sector work on Brazil. The example of transport demand assessment in Tanzania was provided by Steven K. Miller.

The section on environmental impacts is based on many environmental studies and assessments produced inside and outside the World Bank. Additional material included Bartone and Bernstein 1992 and Bartone and others 1994. Box 1.7 was drafted by Peter Whitford.

The section on new opportunities draws from many academic studies and other sources both published and unpublished. References to digitalization in Brazil are from Hobday 1990. Albert Wright and John Courtney provided information on alternative technologies for sanitation. Riverson and Carapetis 1991 and Colin Relf provided examples of improvements in nonmotorized transport.

Valuable suggestions on the drafting of this chapter were provided by, among others, Jean Baneth, William Easterly, Harvey A. Garn, and Gregory Staple. Inputs to the sections on environmental links were provided by Carl Bartone and Josef Leitmann, and additional comments on this subject came from Carter Brandon, Maureen Cropper, Alfred Duda, and Rogier van den Brink. Others who provided very helpful comments on earlier drafts include Marc Juhel, Guy Le Moigne, Hervé Plusquellec, and Yan Wang.


Chapter 2

The data on cross-sectoral comparisons in this chapter are from the World Bank database on adjustment lending conditionality and implementation (ALCID) for structural and sectoral adjustment loans. Most examples and anecdotes are from appraisal reports, completion reports, and other evaluations of projects managed by the Bank over approximately the last twenty years. The recent Bank study of operations and maintenance in Latin America by Gyamfi, Gutierrez, and Yepes 1992 provided invaluable information on the quality, quantity, and nature of government involvement in infrastructure, particularly for roads, power, and water.

The quantification of the gains from privatization in Chile’s power sector is discussed in Galal and others forthcoming. Box 2.1 draws on a 1992 internal evaluation of the Bank’s experience over the last twenty years in the water and sanitation sector. Box 2.2 was drafted by Stefan Alber. Table 2.1 was compiled from detailed data extracted from ALCID. The examples on Brazil, Ghana, and Indonesia, including Box 2.3, are from internal World Bank documents. Ian Heggie suggested the discussion of New Zealand and the roads corporations. The data on the large water utility in East Asia are from the World Bank’s own 1992 assessment of its experience in the sector. The example on the gains from changes in road construction technology in Rwanda is from Martens 1990. The overall discussion of the section on corporatization and performance agreements draws on Cissé forthcoming, Galal and others forthcoming, Nellis 1988, and Shirley and Nellis 1991. Trivedi 1990 provided useful details on the developing country experience with performance agreements, and Debande 1993 and the Debande and Drumaux background paper supplied detailed insights on the European experience with performance agreements.

Many of the conceptual insights in the discussion of the roles of incentives in the organization of governments were inspired by Laffont and Tirole 1993 and Milgrom and Roberts 1992. Box 2.4 and the discussion on Korea throughout the chapter draw on material in Cissé forthcoming, Shirley and Nellis 1991, and Trivedi 1990.

The information on Brazil’s highway departments draws on internal Bank documents and additional data provided by Jacques Cellier. The data on Mexico’s Federal Electricity Commission were provided by its staff. The discussion of management contracts benefited from the ongoing work by Mazi Minovi, Hafeez Shaikh, Thelma Triche, and specific suggestions by John Nellis and Louis Thompson. Electricité de France, Philippe Durand, and World Bank 1993h are the sources for Box 2.5. Box 2.6 on AGETIPs draws on Péan 1993. The examples on subcontracting are from Galenson and Thompson forthcoming, Miguel and Condron 1991, and Yepes 1992.The data for Figure 2.1 on Togo are from internal Bank documents.

The survey of cost recovery and pricing issues has benefited from the discussion in Bahl and Linn 1992, Julius and Alicbusan 1989, and from ongoing work by Carlos Veles on Brazil and by Zmarak Shalizi on the road sector.

Many of the examples on the consequences of failing to minimize costs are from Gyamfi, Gutierrez, and Yepes 1992; from Bhatia and Falkenmark 1993 for the Asian, Haitian, and Mauritanian examples; and from Yepes 1992 for the Latin American examples. The willingness-to-pay study for Espirito Santo comes from internal World Bank documents. Heggie forthcoming provided data on road-user charges in Tanzania. Newbery and others 1988 is the source for the data on Tunisia. Box 2.7 is based on work by John Besant-Jones. Box 2.8 reflects extensive comments from World Bank staff in the Transportation, Water, and Urban Development department and from infrastructure staff in the Africa department. Useful background information was found in Altaf, Jamal, and Whittington 1992, Hau 1990, Johansen 1989a and 1989b, and Whittington and others 1990.

Finally, the following contain additional material complementary to the chapter. Bouttes and Haag 1992 discuss the economics of networks in infrastructure and explain the importance of infrastructure in the context of European integration; Lefèvre 1989 provides a wider discussion applicable to OECD countries, focusing on transport. Caillaud and Quinet 1991 and 1992 propose a useful methodology to assess the effectiveness of incentives in the design of various types of contracts between the French government and bus operators. Mougeot and Naegellen 1992 extend some of this discussion to more general public procurement policies. Pestieau and Tulkens 1992 survey the determinants of public enterprise performance. Seabright 1993 provides important insights on public provision of infrastructure services in South Asia. Tirole 1992 presents a more general theory of the internal organization of government and provides explanations for some of the issues raised in this chapter. Useful material illustrating the benefits of appropriate technology choices can be found in Edmonds and de Veen 1992, Gaude and Miller 1992, Guichaoua 1987, and von Braun, Teklu, and Webb 1992. Information on labor redundancy was obtained from Svejnar and Terrell 1991.

Overall the chapter benefited from detailed comments, suggestions, and inputs from Yao Badjo, John Blaxall, José Carbajo, Jacques Cellier, Nichola Cissé, Pierre Guislain, Timothy Hau, John Nellis, Zmarak Shalizi, Sudhir Shetty, Vinaya Swaroop, Louis Thompson, Kazuko Uchimura, Joris Van Der Ven, and Carlos Velez, within the World Bank, and from Jacques Crémer (Institut d’Economie Industrielle, Toulouse), Mathias Dewatripont and Richard Schlirf (Université Libre de Bruxelles), Paul Seabright (Cambridge University), and Barrie Stevens (OECD).


Chapter 3

This chapter draws on academic sources, background papers, journal publications, World Bank and International Finance Corporation documents, personal communications and comments, and expert consultations both within and outside the World Bank.

Sectoral unbundling in the electric power sector is discussed in Bernstein 1988 (Chile), Littlechild 1992 (U.K.), and Tenenbaum, Lock, and Barker 1992. For railways see Moyer and Thompson 1992 and Nilsson 1993; for telecommunications see Bruce, Harrell, and Kovacs 1993.

The unintended consequences of regulation when substitute services are available are described in Viscusi, Vernon, and Harrington 1992 for the United States and in the Kwong background paper for Hong Kong.

The prescription for allowing all new entry and easing barriers to exit was stated by Baumol, Panzar, and Willig 1988. The example of competition in cellular telephone provision is from the International Finance Corporation background paper. Baumol and Lee 1991 noted the desirability of allowing large manufacturers to sell their excess generating capacity. Triche, Mejia, and Idelovitch 1993 provided the examples of concessions in Buenos Aires and Caracas.

The case for competition for the market is articulated most forcefully by Demsetz 1968. Williamson 1976 cautioned that the franchisee (winner of the competition) has incentives to neglect maintenance of assets toward the end of the contract period. Kühn, Seabright, and Smith 1992 review research on competition.

Gains from privatization are documented by Galal and others forthcoming and Vickers and Yarrow 1988. Informative case studies and reviews of experience with privatization and competition are in Alexander and Corti 1993, Baumol and Sidak 1994, Fukui 1992, Im, Jalali, and Saghir 1993, Ramamurti and Vernon 1991, Roland and Verdier 1993, and Takano 1992. Links between reform, privatization, and investment are described in Besant-Jones 1990a, Churchill 1993, and Helm and Thompson 1991.

The discussion of interconnection financing draws on the background note by Mitchell, on Baumol and Sidak 1994, and on personal communication from Henry Ergas and Dan Craun-Selka.

Much literature exists on the different instruments of price and profit regulation. Recent summaries of the underlying theory and experience can be found in Braeutigam and Panzar 1993, Liston 1993, and the background paper by Sappington. Willig and Baumol 1987 discuss how competition can be used as a guide for regulation. The theory of yardstick competition is discussed by Shleifer 1985, the Chilean power example is from Covarrubias and Maia 1993, the Chilean telecom example is from Galal 1994, and the French example is from Lorrain 1992. Reviews of experience with regulation and regulatory reform are in Bennathan, Escobar, and Panagakos 1989, Carbajo 1993, Churchill 1992, Cordukes 1990, Guasch and Spiller 1993, and Vogel 1986.

For methods of involving consumers in regulation in industrialized countries see Triche 1993 and, in a developing country context, Paul 1993. On self-regulation by the industry, see Gwilliam 1993 for the case of urban transport. Regulation of quality is discussed in Rovizzi and Thompson 1992.

Box 3.1 is based on Moyer and Thompson 1992 and the Stewart-Smith background paper. Box 3.2 and Box table 3.2 are based on Viscusi, Vernon, and Harrington 1992 and Winston 1993. Box 3.3 is by Ashoka Mody. The source for Box 3.4 is Triche 1990. Box 3.5 is based on personal communication with Alain Locussol. Box 3.6 was drafted by Robert Taylor. Material for Box 3.7 was gathered from the International Finance Corporation background paper. The source for Box 3.8 is the Naidu and Lee background paper. The material for Box 3.9 was gathered from Hill and Abdala 1993, and that for Box 3.10 is from Levy and Spiller 1993. The source for Box 3.11 is Paul 1993.

In addition, many individuals contributed valuable comments to this draft, including, among others, Veronique Bishop, Robert Bruce, Michael Ein-horn, Ray Hartman, David Haug, Hugh Landzke, Subodh Mathur, Barbara Opper, David Sappington, Mark Schankerman, Richard Scurfield, Mark Segal, Claude Sorel, Martin Stewart-Smith, and Thelma Triche.


Chapter 4

This chapter draws heavily on numerous internal World Bank reports. Useful discussions and comments were received from many people both within and outside the World Bank, including Carter Brandon, Michael Cernea, David Coady, Maureen Cropper, Lionel Demery, Jean Drèze, Stephen Howes, William Jack, Valerie Kozel, Jean Lanjouw, Hervé Plusquellec, David Steers, Lyn Squire, Nicholas Stern, Elaine Sun, and Vinaya Swaroop.

In addition, the Canadian International Development Administration, the International Forum for Rural Transport and Development, the International Labour Organisation, the Netherlands Ministry of Overseas Cooperation, UNICEF, and Water Aid (U.K.) provided useful written material and pertinent advice.

The section on decentralization draws on a database compiled by Frannie Humplick and discussed in Humplick 1992. Data on the evolution of decentralization are based on IMF statistics, and the discussion draws on background papers by Bird; Crémer, Estache, and Seabright; and Estache and Sinha. The section also benefited from recent information on decentralization from the European Economic Commission, provided to the team by Horst Reichenbach. Other sources for the section are World Bank internal documents and Briscoe 1992, Campbell 1991 and 1992, Dillinger 1993, Narayan forthcoming, and Silverman 1992. Comments from Tim Campbell, Rui Coutinho, Bob Ebel, Jim Hicks, Maureen Lewis, Julio Linares, Rémy Prud’homme, David Sewell, Anwar Shah, Sudhir Shetty, Andrea Silverman, Jerry Silverman, Kazuko Uchimura, and Yoshine Uchimura, of the World Bank, together with the comments of Richard Bird (University of Toronto), Jacques Crémer (University of Toulouse), and George Zodrow (Rice University) on earlier drafts, significantly improved the text. Useful related work included Afonso 1989, Castells 1988, Derycke and Gilbert 1988, Kirwan 1989, Kitchen 1993, Ostrom, Schroeder, and Wynne 1993, Prud’homme 1992, Rondinelli 1991, and Wunsch 1990, 1991a, and 1991b.

The section on participation draws heavily on Narayan forthcoming and on World Bank documents, including Bhatnagar and Williams 1992 and a recent survey by Gerson 1993. Analytical work was based on a database compiled by Deepa Narayan, who also provided comments. In addition, the section benefited from written communication from Allain Ballereau. Messrs. Kroh and Pichke of the German development agencies Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) and Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW), respectively, provided important background material on their agencies’ experience, as did Müller-Glodde 1991.

Much of the material on budget allocations drew from World Bank public expenditure reviews of various countries as well as from other internal documents. The background papers by Asako; Naidu and Lee; Reinfeld; Swaroop; and Uzawa provided useful material, as did Lacey 1989. Qian and Xu 1993 provided evidence on township and rural enterprises in China. Anand 1983 supplied an analysis of poverty in Malaysia during the 1970s.

Aside from internal documents, the section on subsidies drew on a study of five Latin American countries by Petrei 1987 and on material made available to the team by Gaurav Datt, Richard Jolly and colleagues at UNICEF, and Carlos Veles.

The section on externalities draws on World Bank internal documents and on Bakalian and Jagannathan 1991, Bernstein 1993, Blackshaw 1992, and Whittington and others 1992. Piotr Wilczynski’s information on Poland, Vaandrager’s background paper on the Netherlands’ transport sector, and the Ruitenbeek background paper on the environment were also useful.

The final section on planning draws material not only from World Bank internal documents, but also from Bartone and Rodriguez 1993, Besant-Jones 1993, Drèze and Stern 1987, Goldstein 1993, Jack 1993, Little and Mirrlees 1990, the Meier and Munasinghe background paper, Redwood 1993, Ruitenbeek and Cartier 1993, Squire 1990, and the Ruitenbeek background paper.

Box 4.1 is based on material provided by Andrea Silverman. Box 4.2 was provided by Vijay Jagannathan and Albert Wright. Box 4.3 was partially drafted by John Riverson (on Ethiopia) and draws on material from Aitken, Cromwell, and Wishart 1991 (on Nepal). Box 4.4 is based on the Naidu and Lee background paper. The Ruitenbeek background paper is the source for Box 4.5. Box 4.6 draws on Bryceson and Howe 1993, Pankaj 1991, and von Braun 1988. Ian Heggie, John Roome, and Joel Maweni provided material for Box 4.7. Box 4.8 draws on internal reports of the World Bank’s Operations and Evaluations Department, the Operations Policy Department, and a review of the Bank’s project portfolio. Box 4.9 is taken from the Meier and Munasinghe background paper. Finally, Box 4.10 is based on internal World Bank reports.


Chapter 5

This chapter draws on academic sources; background papers; journal publications; documents from the IFC, the IMF, the OECD, the U.S. government, and the World Bank; personal communications and comments; and expert consultations both within and outside the World Bank.

The discussion of the theory that governments might be able to raise financing more cheaply than private investors—but that these gains also need to be balanced against greater efficiency of provision under private ownership—is from Kay 1993. Lane 1992 is the source for the fact that governments face a rising cost of finance and also potential liquidity problems if excessive debt is accumulated. The discussion of tying of aid is based on OECD 1992 and other documents of the Development Assistance Committee of the OECD, as well as on comments from Fabio Ballerin.

Projections of infrastructure investments in Asia are from CS First Boston 1993. The IFC background paper is the source for estimates of IFC’s infrastructure lending. General descriptions of trends in private international capital flows, and especially the shift in foreign direct investments toward service provision, are described in World Bank 1993i and IMF 1993a.

General principles of project financing may be found in Nevitt 1989. Discussions of case studies of risk sharing in project finance are in IFC 1993 and Pyle 1994. Material on new projects is taken from various issues of the trade journals Public Works Financing and Latin Finance. Information on private transport projects is based on Gómez-Ibáñez and Meyer 1993. Coverage of country risk, and especially the role of export credit agencies in insuring against such risks, is described in the Zhu background paper.

Banks for municipal infrastructure in developing countries are described in Davey 1988 as well as in personal communications from Sergio Contreras and Myrna Alexander. The case study on FEC in Morocco is from Linares 1993. The financing of contractors is discussed in Kirmani 1988. Description of the new infrastructure funds was provided through personal communications by Per Ljung (Pakistan) and Krishna Challa (Jamaica).

The links between privatization and capitalmarket development are described in a background note prepared by Joyita Mukherjee. Municipal bond markets are discussed in U.S. Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board 1993, Shilling 1992, and U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission 1993. Mesa Lago 1991 and Vittas and Skully 1991 describe the evolution of contractual savings institutions in developing countries.

The source for Box 5.1 and Box 5.8 is Ashoka Mody. The material for Box 5.2 and for Box 5.4 is from the International Finance Corporation background paper. Box 5.3 is from the Eichengreen background paper. The sources for Box 5.5 are Miceli 1991 and Williams 1993. Oks 1993 is the resource for Box 5.6. The material for Box 5.7 is from USAID 1993. The source for Box 5.9 is Garzon 1992. Figure 5.6 was compiled by Ashoka Mody.

Valuable contributions to this chapter came from many sources, including Myrna Alexander, Mark Augenblick, Anand Chandavarkar, Stijn Claessens, Asli Demirguc-Kunt, David Haug, John Giraudo, George Kappaz, Sunita Kikeri, Timothy Lane, Kenneth Lay, Julio Linares, Laurie Mahon, Subodh Mathur, Barbara Opper, Robert Palacios, Thomas Pyle, William Reinhardt, Jean-François Rischard, Hari Sankaran, Anita Schwarz, Mark Segal, Claude Sorel, James Stein, Martin Stewart-Smith, Jane Walker, Al Watkins, and Ning Zhu.


Chapter 6

This chapter draws upon the analysis presented in earlier chapters and the bibliographic references used therein. Additional references are noted here.Table 6.1 was derived from antecedents provided in Coyaud 1988 and Kessides 1993b. Box 6.1 on the conditions for good performance of each institutional option and the related discussion draw on Dia 1993, Lorrain 1992, and Martinand 1993, and comments by Colin Relf. Helpful comments and suggestions on this discussion were provided by, among others, Abhay Deshpande and Thelma Triche.

For the section on sectoral priorities, sources included Bartone 1991a and 1991b, Bartone and others 1994, Cointreau-Levine 1994, World Bank 1992c, World Bank 1993g, and Wellenius and others 1992. People who contributed to the specific sector agendas include Carl Bartone and Joe Leitmann (solid waste); John Briscoe (water supply); Anthony Churchill (power); Eric Daffern (gas); John Flora, Jeffrey Gutman, Kenneth Gwilliam, Ian Heggie, Zmarak Shalizi, Antti Talvitie, and Louis Thompson (transport); Nikola Holcer, Timothy Nulty, Peter Smith, and Gregory Staples (telecommunications); and Guy Le Moigne and David Steeds (irrigation);

The estimates of gains from increasing efficiency and correcting mispricing are from the Ingram and Fay background paper, except for those for the power sector. Energy inefficiency, transmission, and distribution losses for the power sector were based on estimates from World Bank 1993c, as were the estimated gains from correcting mispricing in the sector. Additional material was provided by Dennis Anderson and Edwin Moore.


Background papers

Zhu, Ning. “Managing Country Risk: The Role of Export Credit Agencies.”

Yuan, Lee Tsao. “The Development of Economic Infrastructure: The Singapore Experience.”

Wade, Robert. “Public Bureaucracy and the Incentive Problem: Organizational Determinants of a ‘High-Quality Civil Service,’ India and Korea.”

Vaandrager, René. “A Transport Structure Plan.”

Uzawa, Hirofumi. “The Environment and Infrastructure.”

Swaroop, Vinaya. “The Public Finance of Infrastructure: Issues and Options.”

Stewart-Smith, Martin. “Industry Structure and Regulation.”

Schlirf, Richard. “Background Note: Introduction to the European Community Financing Policy for Infrastructure.”

Sappington, David E. M. “Principles of Regulatory Policy Design.”

Ruitenbeek, H. Jack. “Infrastructure and the Environment: Lessons and Directions.”

Reinfeld, William. “Infrastructure and Its Relation to Economic Development: The Cases of Korea and Taiwan, China.”

Peskin, Henry M.,  and Douglas Barnes. “Background Note: What Is the Value of Electricity Access for Poor Urban Consumers?.”

Naidu, G.,  and Cassey Lee. “Infrastructure in the Economic Development of Malaysia.”

Mukherjee, Joyita. “Background Note: Privatization and Capital Market Development.”

Mitchell, Bridger. “Background Note: Network Interconnection—A Primer.”

Meier, Peter,  and Mohan Munasinghe. “Power Sector Planning for the Public Interest.”

Kwong, Sunny Kai-Sun. “Infrastructural and Economic Development in Hong Kong.”

Kuninori, Morio. “Methods of Financing Infrastructure: The Case of Japanese System.”

Kirwan, Richard. “Private Sector Involvement in Infrastructure in Europe and Australia.”

Kerr, Christine,  and Lesley Citroen. “Background Note: Household Expenditures on Infrastructure Services.”

Jacobson, Charles D.,  and Joel A. Tarr. “Public or Private? Some Notes from the History of Infrastructure.”

Isham, Jonathan, Deepa Narayan,  and Lant Pritchett. “Background Note: Participation and Performance—Econometric Issues with Project Data.”

International Finance Corporation. “Financing Private Infrastructure Projects: Emerging Trends from IFC’s Experience.”

Ingram, Gregory,  and Marianne Fay. “Valuing Infrastructure Stocks and Gains from Improved Performance.”

Estache, Antonio,  and Sarbajit Sinha. “The Effect of Decentralization on the Level of Public Infrastructure Expenditures.”

Estache, Antonio,  and Frannie Humplick. “Background Note: Does Decentralization Improve Infrastructure Performance?.”

Eichengreen, Barry. “Financing Infrastructure in Developing Countries: An Historical Perspective from the 19th Century.”

Debande, Olivier,  and Anne Drumaux. “Infrastructure Regulation Policies in Europe.”

de Lucia, Russell J. “Background Note: Poverty and Infrastructure Linkages, Issues and Questions.”

Darbéra, Richard. “Bus Public Transport Franchising in French Urban Areas: Efficiency Implications.”

Crémer, Jacques, Antonio Estache,  and Paul Seabright. “Lessons of the Theory of the Firm for the Decentralization of Public Services.”

Chandavarkar, Anand. “Infrastructure Finance: Issues, Institutions and Policies.”

Bird, Richard M. “Decentralizing Infrastructure: For Good or for Ill?.”

Basu, Ritu,  and Lant Pritchett. “Background Note: Channels of Effective Participation.”

Basu, Ritu. “Background Note: Rates of Return for Construction and Maintenance Projects.”

Asako, Kazumi. “Infrastructure Investment in Japan.”


Selected bibliography

Paul, Samuel. 1991a. “Accountability in Public Services: Exit, Voice and Capture.” Policy Research Working Paper 614. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Pankaj, T. 1991. “Designing Low-Cost Rural Transport Components to Reach the Poor.” Infrastructure Notes RD-3. World Bank, Transport, Water, and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Ostrom, Elinor, Larry Schroeder,  and Susan Wynne. 1993. Institutional Incentives and Sustainable Development: Infrastructure Policies in Perspective. San Francisco: Westview Press.

Oks, Daniel. 1993. “Mexico: Private Sector Participation in Infrastructure Development.” Paper presented at. Infrastructure Symposium, World Bank, Washington, D.C., September.

------------. 1993. Infrastructure Policies for the 1990s. Paris.

------------. 1992. DAC Principles for Effective Aid: Development Assistance Manual. Paris.

OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development). 1991. Urban Infrastructure: Finance and Management. Paris.

Nilsson, Jan-Eric. 1993. Regulatory Reform in Swedish Railways: Policy Review with Emphasis on Track Allocation Issues. Stockholm: Stockholm University, Department of Economics.

Newbery, David, Gordon Hughes, William D. Paterson,  and Esra Bennathan. 1988. Road Transport Taxation in Developing Countries: The Design of User Charges and Taxes for Tunisia. World Bank Discussion Paper 26. Washington, D.C.

Nevitt, Peter K. 1989. Project Financing. London: Euromoney.

Nellis, John. 1988. “Contract Plans and Public Enterprise Performance.” Working Paper 118. World Bank, Country Economics Department, Washington, D.C.

National Housing Bank of India. 1992. Report on Trend and Progress of Housing in India. Central Government Reserve Bank of India, New Delhi.

Narayan, Deepa. Forthcoming. “Contribution of People’s Participation: Evidence.” ESD Occasional Paper. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

------------. 1992. “Infrastructure Investment and Economic Growth.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 6(4): 189–98.

Munnell, Alicia H. 1990. “Why Has Productivity Declined? Productivity and Public Investment.” New England Economic Review. (January/February): 3–22.

Müller-Glodde, Ulrike, ed. 1991. “Where There Is No Participation.” Eschbom, Germany: Deutsche Gesellschaft fülr Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ).

Moyer, Neil E.,  and Louis S. Thompson. 1992. “Options for Reshaping the Railway.” Policy Research Working Paper 926. World Bank, Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Mougeot, Michel,  and Florence Naegellen. 1992. Mécanismes Incitatifs et Formation des Prix. Paris: Economica.

Moser, Carolyn. 1989. “Community Participation in Urban Projects in the Third World.” Progress in Planning 32: 73–134.

Mody, Ashoka,  and Kamil Yilmaz. 1994. “Is There Persistence in the Growth of Manufactured Exports?.” Policy Research Working Paper 1276. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Mody, Ashoka,  and Fang Yi Wang. 1994. “Explaining Industrial Growth in Coastal China: Economic Reforms … and What Else?.” World Bank, Private Sector Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Milgrom, Paul,  and John Roberts. 1992. Economics, Organization and Management. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Miguel, Sergio,  and James Condron. 1991. “Assessment of Road Maintenance by Contract.” INU Report 91. World Bank, Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Miceli, Thomas J. 1991. “Compensation for the Taking of Land under Eminent Domain.” Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 147(2): 354–63.

Meyers, Kenneth. 1986. “A Reappraisal of the Sectoral Incidence of Government Expenditure Cutbacks.” CPD Discussion Paper 1986–11. International Finance Corporation, Washington, D.C.

Mesa-Lago, Carmelo. 1991. Portfolio Performance of Selected Social Institutions in Latin America. World Bank Discussion Paper 139. Washington, D.C.

Mera, Koichi. 1973. “Regional Production Functions and Social Overhead Capital: An Analysis of the Japanese Case.” Regional and Urban Economics 3(May): 157–85.

Mason, Melody,  and Sydney Thriscutt. 1991. “Road Deterioration in Sub-Saharan Africa.” In World Bank. The Road Maintenance Initiative: Building Capacity for Policy Reform. Vol. 2, Readings and Case Studies. EDI Seminar Series. Washington, D.C.

Martinand, Claude, ed. 1993. “Private Financing of Public Infrastructure: The French Experience.” Ministry of Public Works, Transportation, and Tourism, Paris.

Martens, Bertin. 1990. “Etude Comparée de l’Efficacité Economique des Techniques à Haute Intensité du Main-d’Oeuvre et à Haute Intensité d’Equipement pour la Construction de Routes Secondaires au Rwanda.” Geneva: International Labour Organisation.

Madanat, Samer,  and Frannie Humplick. 1993. “A Model of Household Choice of Water Supply Systems in Developing Countries.” Water Resources Research 29(5): 1353–58.

Lorrain, Dominique. 1992. “The French Model of Urban Services.” West European Politics 15(2): 77–92.

Littlechild, S. C. 1992. “Competition and Regulation in the British Electricity Industry.” Utilities Policy 2(4): 270–75.

Little, I. M. D.,  and J. A. Mirrlees. 1990. “Project Appraisal and Planning Twenty Years On.” In Proceedings of the World Bank Annual Conference on Development Economics 1989, Washington, D.C., World Bank.

Liston, Catherine. 1993. “Price-Cap versus Rate-of-Return Regulation.” journal of Regulatory Economics 5(1): 25–48.

Linares, Julio. 1993. “Reforming Municipal Finance: Morocco.” Infrastructure Notes FM-5. World Bank, Transport, Water, and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Levy, Brian,  and Pablo Spiller. 1993. “Utility Regulation—Getting the Fit Right.” Outreach 14. World Bank, Policy Research Department, Washington, D.C.

Lefèvre, Christian. 1989. La Crise des Transports Publics (France, Etats-Unis, Royaume-Uni, Italie, Pays-Bas). No. 4900. Paris: La Documentation Française.

Lee, Kyu Sik, Alex Anas,  and Satyendra Verma. 1993. “Infrastructure Bottlenecks, Private Provision, and Industrial Productivity: A Study of Indonesian and Thai Cities.” World Bank, Transport, Water, and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Lee, Kyu Sik,  and Alex Anas. 1992. “Costs of Deficient Infrastructure: The Case of Nigerian Manufacturing.” Urban Studies 29(7): 1071–92.

Latin Finance. Various years.

Lanjouw, Peter,  and N. H. Stern. 1993. “Agricultural Change and Inequality in Palanpur, 1957–84.” In K. A. Hoff  and J. Stiglitz, eds., The Economics of Rural Organization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lane, Timothy D. 1992. “Market Discipline.” IMF Staff Papers 40(1): 53–88.Washington, D.C.

Laffont, Jean-Jacques,  and Jean Tirole. 1993. A Theory of Incentives in Procurement and Regulation. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

Lacey, Robert. 1989. “The Management of Public Expenditures: An Evolving Bank Approach.” Background paper for World Development Report 1988. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Kurian, G. T. 1991. The New Book of World Ranking. New York: Facts on File.

Kühn, Kai-Uwe, Paul Seabright,  and Alasdair Smith. 1992. Competition Policy Research: Where Do We Stand?. CEPR Occasional Paper 8. London: Centre for Economic Policy Research.

Kresge, David T.,  and Paul O. Roberts. 1971. “Systems Analysis and Simulation Models.” In J. R. Meyer, ed.,Techniques of Transport Planning. vol. 2, Washington, D C.: Brookings Institution.

Kranton, Rachel E. 1991. “Transport and the Mobility Needs of the Urban Poor.” INU Report 86. World Bank, Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Kitchen, H. 1993. “Efficient Delivery of Local Government Services.” Queen’s University, Government and Competitiveness School of Policy Studies. Kingston, Ontario.

Kirwan, R. M. 1989. “Finance for Urban Public Infrastructure.” Urban Studies 26: 285–300.

Kirmani, Syed S. 1988. “The Construction Industry in Development: Issues and Options.” INU Report 10. World Bank, Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Kikeri, Sunita, John Nellis,  and Mary Shirley. 1992. Privatization: The Lessons of Experience. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

------------. 1993b. Institutional Options for the Provision of Infrastructure. World Bank Discussion Paper 212. Washington, D.C.

Kessides, Christine. 1993a. The Contributions of Infrastructure to Economic Development: A Review of Experience and Policy Implications. World Bank Discussion Paper 213. Washington, D.C.

Keeler, Theodore E.,  and John S. Ying. 1988. “Measuring the Benefits of a Large Public Investment: The Case of the U.S. Federal-Aid Highway System.” Journal of Public Economics 6: 69–85.

Kay, John. 1993. “Efficiency and Private Capital in the Provision of Infrastructure.” Paper presented to. OECD Forum for the Future conference on “Infrastructure Policies for the 1990s,", Paris, January 18.

Kaufmann, D. 1991. “The Forgotten Rationale for Policy Reform: The Productivity of Investment Projects.” Background paper for. World Development Report 1991. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Kain, John F. 1990. A Critical Assessment of Public Transport Investment in Latin America. Washington, D.C.: Inter-American Development Bank.

Julius, DeAnne S.,  and Adelaida P. Alicbusan. 1989. “Public Sector Pricing Policies: A Review of Bank Policy and Practice.” PRE Working Paper 49. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

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Johansen, Frida. 1989a. “Earmarking, Road Funds and Toll Roads.” INU Report 45. World Bank, Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Jimenez, Emmanuel. Forthcoming. “Human and Physical Infrastructure: Public Investment and Pricing Policies in Developing Countries.” In J. Behrman  and T. N. Srinivasan, eds., Handbook of Development Economics. vol. 3, New York: North Holland.

Japan, Government of. 1984. 1980 Input-Output Tables. Tokyo: Administrative Management Agency.

Jaiswal, Shailendra N. 1992. “The Role of Transport and Communication in Resource Conserving Urban Settlements.” Punjab, India.

Jaiswal, Shailendra N. 1992. “The Role of Transport and Communication in Resource Conserving Urban Settlements.” Punjab, India.

Jack, William. 1993. “Some Guidelines for the Appraisal of Large Projects.” Discussion Paper 126. World Bank, Office of the Chief Economist, South Asia Region, Washington, D.C.

Israel, Arturo. 1992. Issues for Infrastructure Management in the 1990s. World Bank Discussion Paper 171. Washington, D.C.

International Telecommunication Union (ITU). 1994. World Telecommunications Development Report. Geneva.

International Roads Federation (IRF). Various years. World Road Statistics. Washington, D.C.

International Road Transport Union (IRTU). Various years. World Transport Data. Geneva.

------------. Various years. Government Finance Statistics. Washington, D.C.

------------. 1993b. Direction of Trade Statistics. Washington, D.C.

IMF (International Monetary Fund). 1993a. Private Market Financing for Developing Countries. World Economic and Financial Surveys, Washington, D.C.

IFC (International Finance Corporation). 1993. Emerging Stock Markets Factbook. Washington, D.C.

Im, Soo J., Robert Jalali,  and Jamal Saghir. 1993. “Privatization in the Republics of the Former Soviet Union.” World Bank, Legal Department, Private Sector Development and Privatization Group, Washington, D.C.

Hungary, Government of. Central Statistics Office and Ministry of Finance. World Bank. 1989. “Incidence Analysis: The Impact of Consumer and Housing Subsidies on Household Income Distribution.” Budapest, Hungary.

Humplick, F., A. Kudat,  and S. Madanat. 1993. “Modeling Household Responses to Water Supply: A Service Quality Approach.” Working Paper 4. World Bank, Transport, Water, and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Humplick, Frannie. 1992. “Private Ownership, Competition, and Decentralization: Impacts on Infrastructure Performance.” World Bank, Latin America and the Caribbean Department, Washington, D.C.

------------. 1993. Optimal Growth with Public Infrastructure Capital: Implications for Empirical Modeling. College Park, Md.: University of Maryland.

Hulten, Charles,  and Robert M. Schwab. 1991. Is There Too Little Public Capital?. Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute.

Howe, Charles W.,  and John A. Dixon. 1993. “Inefficiencies in Water Project Design and Operation in the Third World: An Economic Perspective.” Water Resources Research 29(7): 1889–94.

------------. 1992. “Public-Sector Capital and the Productivity Puzzle.” Working Paper 4122. Cambridge, Mass: National Bureau of Economic Research.

Holtz-Eakin, Douglas. 1988. “Private Output, Government Capital, and the Infrastructure Crisis.” Discussion Paper 394. New York: Columbia University.

Hobday, Michael. 1990. Telecommunications in Developing Countries: The Challenge from Brazil. London: Routledge.

Hill, Alice,  and Manuel Angel Abdala. 1993. “Regulation, Institutions, and Commitment: Privatization and Regulation in the Argentine Telecommunications Sector.” Policy Research Working Paper 1216. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Hieronymi, O. 1993. “Decision Making for Infrastructure: Environmental and Planning Issues.” Paper presented to. The OECD Forum for the Future conference on “Infrastructure Policies for the 1990s,", Paris, January 18.

Hicks, Norman L. 1991. “Expenditure Reductions in Developing Countries Revisited.” Journal of International Development 3(1): 29–37.

Helm, Dieter,  and Louis Thompson. 1991. “Privatised Transport Infrastructure and Incentives to Invest.” Journal of Transport Economics and Policy 25(3): 247–58.

Heidarian, Jamshid,  and Gary Wu. 1993. “Power Sector: Statistics of Developing Countries (1987–1991).” World Bank, Industry and Energy Department, Washington, D.C.

Heggie, Ian,  and Michael Quick. 1990. “A Framework for Analyzing Financial Performance of the Transport Sector.” Working Paper 356. World Bank, Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Heggie, Ian. Forthcoming. “Management and Financing of Roads: An Agenda for Reform.” SSATP Working Paper 8. World Bank and United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program. Washington, D.C.

Hazell, Peter,  and Steven Haggblade. 1993. “Farm-Nonfarm Growth Linkages and the Welfare of the Poor.” In Michael Lipton  and Jacques van der Gaag, eds., Including the Poor. New York: Oxford University Press.

Hau, Timothy D. 1990. “Electronic Road Pricing: Developments in Hong Kong 1983–1989.” Journal of Transport Economics and Policy 24(2): 203–14.

Harral, Clell G, ed. 1992. Transport Development in Southern China. World Bank Discussion Paper 151. Washington, D.C.

Gyamfi, Peter, Luis Gutierrez,  and Guillermo Yepes. 1992. “Infrastructure Maintenance in LAC: The Costs of Neglect and Options for Improvement.” 3 vols. Regional Studies Program Report 17. World Bank, Latin America and the Caribbean Technical Department, Washington, D.C.

Gwilliam, K. M. 1993. “Urban Bus Operators’ Associations.” Infrastructure Notes. World Bank, Transport, Water, and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Guislain, Pierre. 1992. Divestiture of State Enterprises. An Overview of the Legal Framework. Technical Paper 186. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

Guichaoua, A. 1987. Les Paysans et I’lnvestissement-Travail au Burundi et au Rwanda. Geneva: International Labour Organisation.

Guasch, J. Luis,  and Pablo Spiller. 1993. “Utility Regulation and Private Sector Development.” World Bank, Latin America and the Caribbean Technical Department Advisory Group, Washington, D.C.

Grübler, Arnulf. 1990. The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Gómez-Ibañez, José,  and John R. Meyer. 1993. Going Private: The International Experience with Transport Privatization. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.

Goldstein, Ellen. 1993. The Impact of Rural Infrastructure on Rural Poverty: Lessons for South Asia. World Bank Discussion Paper 131. Washington, D.C.

Glewwe, Paul,  and Kwaku A. Twum-Baah. 1991. “The Distribution of Welfare in Ghana, 1987–88.” LSMS Working Paper 75. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

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Glewwe, Paul. 1987a. “The Distribution of Welfare in the Republic of Côte d’Ivoire in 1985.” LSMS Working Paper 29. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Gleick, Peter H, ed. 1993. Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World’s Fresh Water Resources. Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security. New York: Oxford University Press.

Gerson, Philip R. 1993. “Popular Participation in Economic Theory and Practice.” Human Resources and Operations Policy Working Paper 18. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Gaude, Jacques,  and H. Watzlawick. 1992. “Employment Creation and Poverty Alleviation through Labor-intensive Public Works in Least Developed Countries.” International Labour Review 131(1): 3–18.

Garzon, R. Hernando. 1992. “Municipal Credit Institutions: The Case of Colombia.” Working Paper 17. World Bank, Transportation, Water, and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Garn, Harvey A. 1987. “Patterns in the Data Reported on Completed Water Supply Projects.” World Bank, Transport, Water, and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Galenson, Alice,  and Louis Thompson. Forthcoming. “The Bank’s Evolving Policy toward Railway Lending.” World Bank, Transport, Water, and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

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Galenson, Alice. 1989. “Labor Redundancy in the Transport Sector.” INU paper 36. World Bank, Transport, Water, and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Galal, Ahmed, Leroy P. Jones, Pankaj Tandon,  and Ingo Vogelsang. Forthcoming. Welfare Consequences of Selling Public Enterprises. New York: Oxford University Press.

Galal, Ahmed. 1994. “Regulation and Commitment in the Development of Telecommunications in Chile.” Policy Research Working Paper 1278. World Bank, Policy Research Department, Washington, D.C.

Fukui, Koichiro. 1992. Japanese National Railways Privatization Study. World Bank Discussion Paper 172. Washington, D.C.

Ford, Robert,  and Pierre Poret. 1991. “Infrastructure and Private-Sector Productivity.” OECD Economic Studies 17: 63–89.

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Easterly, William, Carlos Rodríguez,  and Klaus Schmidt-Hebbel, eds. Forthcoming. Public Sector Deficits and Macro-economic Performance. New York: Oxford University Press.

Cordukes, Peter A. 1990. “A Review of Regulation of the Power Sectors in the Developing Countries.” World Bank, Industry and Energy Department, Washington, D.C.

Cotton, A.,  and R. Franceys. 1993. “Infrastructure for the Urban Poor in Developing Countries.” Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Municipal Engineer 98, September. 129–38.

Covarrubias, Alvaro,  and Suzanne Maia. 1993. “Reforms and Private Participation in the Power Sector of Selected Industrialized and Latin American and Caribbean Countries.” Latin America Technical Paper Series. World Bank, Latin American and the Caribbean Technical Department, Washington, D.C.

Coyaud, Daniel. 1988. “Private and Public Alternatives for Providing Water Supply and Sewerage Services.” INU Report 31. World Bank, Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

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Davey, Kenneth. 1988. “Municipal Development Funds and Intermediaries.” PRE Working Paper 32. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Deaton, Angus, Duncan Thomas, Janet Neelin,  and Nikhilesh Bhattacharya. 1987. “The Demand for Personal Travel in Developing Countries.” INU Discussion Paper 1. World Bank, Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, Washington, D.C.

Debande, Olivier. 1993. Formalisation des Contrats de Gestion de la SNCB et de la RVA/SNVA sur Base de la Théorie des Incitations. Brussels: Ecole de Commerce Solvay, Université Libre de Bruxelles.

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Dia, Mamadou. 1993. A Governance Approach to Civil Service Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

Dillinger, William. 1993. “Decentralization and Its Implications for Urban Service Delivery.” Discussion Paper 16. UNDP/UNCHS/World Bank Urban Management Program. Washington, D.C.

Doyen, Jean H. 1993. “Implementation of the Objectives of the Second Transport Decade: The Primacy of Policy Reform and Local Resource Management.” Comments from the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. Conference of African Ministers of Transport, Planning, and Communications, March 10–12.

Drèze, J. P.,  and A. P. Sen. 1989. Hunger and Public Action. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

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Drumaux, Anne. 1993. Rapport de Recherche Intermediaire: Observatoire des Enterprises Publiques. Brussels: Ecole de Commerce Solvay, Université Libre de Bruxelles.

Duffy-Deno, Kevin T.,  and Randall W. Eberts. 1991. “Public Infrastructure and Regional Economic Development: A Simultaneous Equations Approach.” Journal of Urban Economics 30: 329–43.

Easterly, William,  and Sergio Rebelo. 1993. “Fiscal Policy and Economic Growth: An Empirical Investigation.” Journal of Monetary Economics 32(2): 417–58.

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Cissé, Nichola. Forthcoming. “The Impact of Performance Contracts on Public Enterprise Performance.” Paper presented at. The World Bank Working Conference on the Changing Role of the State: Strategies for Reforming Public Enterprises, Washington, D.C.

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Castells, Antonio. 1988. Hacienda Autonómica: Una Perspectiva de Federalismo Fiscal. Barcelona: Ariel Economía.

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Appendix: Infrastructure data


Introduction

Table A.1 presents summary information on infrastructure stocks as well as electricity production and irrigated land. Table A.2 offers data on access to drinking water and sanitation. The two remaining tables provide data on financial commitments and support to infrastructure. Readers should refer to the “Definitions and data notes" for an explanation of the country groups used in these tables. Tables A.1 and A.2 list economies in the same order as in the World Development Indicators.

Although the data reported here are drawn from the most authoritative sources available, comparability may be limited by variations in data collection, statistical methods, and definitions.


Table A.1 Physical measures of infrastructure provision

Data for paved roads are from Canning and Fay 1993 for the years prior to 1990; figures for 1990 were compiled from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency 1991 (primary source), the International Roads Federation (IRF), various years, or the International Road Transport Union (IRTU), various years. Where 1990 data were not available, figures for 1988 or 1989 were used. Quinquennial data are available from 1960 to 1990, but the data are available yearly from the IRF and the IRTU.

Both net installed capacity of electricity-generating plants and electricity production are from Canning and Fay 1993 for the years prior to 1990. Figures for 1990 come from United Nations 1991. Quinquennial data are available from 1960 to 1990; the data are available yearly from the UN source.

A telephone main line is a telephone line that connects the subscriber’s terminal equipment to the public switched network and has a dedicated port in the telephone exchange equipment. This term is synonymous with the term main station, which is commonly used in telecommunication documents. Data for main lines are from the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 1994. Quinquennial data are available, but the data are available yearly for the years 1975–92 from the ITU’s electronic database.

Information on kilometers of railroad tracks is from Canning and Fay 1993 for the years prior to 1990. Figures for 1990 are from the World Bank; quinquennial data are available from 1960 to 1990.

Figures for irrigated land were obtained from the data files of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The data are available from the FAO for 1961 onward.

Table A.1 - Physical measures of infrastructure provision

 

 

Table A.2 Access to drinking water and sanitation

Access to drinking water means access to safe water by either standpost or house connections. Safe water is defined here as treated surface waters or untreated but uncontaminated waters, such as from protected springs, boreholes, and sanitary wells. Access to sanitation includes access by either sewer connection or other means such as septic tanks, communal toilets, pit privies, pour-flush latrines, etc. Data are primarily from the World Health Organization 1980 and 1990, complemented by Gleick 1993 and World Resources Institute 1992. (Data from WHO are provided by governments and are not verified independently.) Quinquennial data are available from 1970 to 1990 for the total and from 1980 to 1990 for rural and urban categories.

Table A.2 - Access to drinking water and sanitation
(percentage of population)

 

 

Table A.3 World Bank and IDA commitments to infrastructure

The World Bank’s central lending database (ALCID) is the source for annual figures for 1950–93.Infrastructure commitments are included for the following sectors: irrigation and drainage; power; telecommunications; water and sanitation; and total transport. Total transport includes aviation, highways, ports and waterways, railways, and urban transport, as well as commitments to the overall transportation sector. Sector adjustment loans (SECALs) are included. These data do not include minor infrastructure components of projects in other sectors, for example, rural development or environmental projects.

Table A.3 - IBRD and IDA commitments
(millions of current U.S. dollars)

 

 

Table A.4 Official development finance for infrastructure

The OECD provided data for the years 1984–92. The figures given here are based on total official flows as defined by the Development Assistance Committee of the OECD. Total infrastructure includes communications, energy, transport, water supply and sanitation, as well as river development and other infrastructure not classified in the previous categories.

Table A.4 - Official development finance commitments
(millions of current U.S. dollars)

 

 

 

 

 

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